Rear electrode structures for displays

ABSTRACT

Novel addressing schemes for controlling electronically addressable displays include a scheme for rear-addressing displays, which allows for in-plane switching of the display material. Other schemes include a rear-addressing scheme which uses a retroreflecting surface to enable greater viewing angle and contrast. Another scheme includes an electrode structure that facilitates manufacture and control of a color display. Another electrode structure facilitates addressing a display using an electrostatic stylus. Methods of using the disclosed electrode structures are also disclosed. Another scheme includes devices combining display materials with silicon transistor addressing structures.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/141,280, filedAug. 27, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,950 which application isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This applicationincorporates herein by reference U.S. Ser. No. 08/504,896 filed Jul. 20,1995, U.S. Ser. No. 08/983,404 filed Jul. 19, 1997, and U.S. Ser. No.08/935,800 filed Sep. 23, 1997. This application claims priority to U.S.Ser. No. 60/057,133 filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,716, filedAug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,122, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser.No. 60/057,798, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,799 filed Aug.28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,163 filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No.60/057,118, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/059,358, filed Sep.19, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/065,630 filed Nov. 18, 1997, U.S. Ser. No.60/065,605 filed Nov. 18, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,147, filed Nov. 19,1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,245, filed Nov. 20, 1997, U.S. Ser. No.60/066,246, filed Nov. 20, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,115 filed Nov. 21,1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,334 filed Nov. 21, 1997, U.S. Ser. No.60/066,418 filed Nov. 24, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/070,940 filed Jan. 9,1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/071,371 filed Jan. 15, 1998, U.S. Ser. No.60/072,390 filed Jan. 9, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/070,939 filed Jan. 9,1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/070,935 filed Jan. 9, 1998, U.S. Ser. No.60/074,454, filed Feb. 12, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,955 filed Mar. 5,1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,959 filed Mar. 5, 1998, U.S. Ser. No.60/076,957 filed Mar. 5, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,978 filed Mar. 5,1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/078,363 filed Mar. 18, 1998, U.S. Ser. No.60/083,252 filed Apr. 27, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/085,096 filed May 12,1998, and U.S. Ser. No. 60/093,689 filed Jul. 22, 1998, the contents ofall of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to addressing apparatus and methods forelectronic displays and, in particular, to addressing apparatus andmethods for encapsulated electrophoretic displays.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Traditionally, electronic displays such as liquid crystal displays havebeen made by sandwiching an optoelectrically active material between twopieces of glass. In many cases each piece of glass has an etched, clearelectrode structure formed using indium tin oxide. A first electrodestructure controls all the segments of the display that may beaddressed, that is, changed from one visual state to another. A secondelectrode, sometimes called a counter electrode, addresses all displaysegments as one large electrode, and is generally designed not tooverlap any of the rear electrode wire connections that are not desiredin the final image. Alternatively, the second electrode is alsopatterned to control specific segments of the displays. In thesedisplays, unaddressed areas of the display have a defined appearance.

Electrophoretic display media, generally characterized by the movementof particles through an applied electric field, are highly reflective,can be made bistable, and consume very little power. Encapsulatedelectrophoretic displays also enable the display to be printed. Theseproperties allow encapsulated electrophoretic display media to be usedin many applications for which traditional electronic displays are notsuitable, such as flexible displays. The electro-optical properties ofencapsulated displays allow, and in some cases require, novel schemes orconfigurations to be used to address the displays.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An object of the invention is to provide a highly-flexible, reflectivedisplay which can be manufactured easily, consumes little (or no in thecase of bistable displays) power, and can, therefore, be incorporatedinto a variety of applications. The invention features a printabledisplay comprising an encapsulated electrophoretic display medium. Theresulting display is flexible. Since the display media can be printed,the display itself can be made inexpensively.

An encapsulated electrophoretic display can be constructed so that theoptical state of the display is stable for some length of time. When thedisplay has two states which are stable in this manner, the display issaid to be bistable. If more than two states of the display are stable,then the display can be said to be multistable. For the purpose of thisinvention, the term bistable will be used to indicate a display in whichany optical state remains fixed once the addressing voltage is removed.The definition of a bistable state depends on the application for thedisplay. A slowly-decaying optical state can be effectively bistable ifthe optical state is substantially unchanged over the required viewingtime. For example, in a display which is updated every few minutes, adisplay image which is stable for hours or days is effectively bistablefor that application. In this invention, the term bistable alsoindicates a display with an optical state sufficiently long-lived as tobe effectively bistable for the application in mind. Alternatively, itis possible to construct encapsulated electrophoretic displays in whichthe image decays quickly once the addressing voltage to the display isremoved (i.e., the display is not bistable or multistable). As will bedescribed, in some applications it is advantageous to use anencapsulated electrophoretic display which is not bistable. Whether ornot an encapsulated electrophoretic display is bistable, and its degreeof bistability, can be controlled through appropriate chemicalmodification of the electrophoretic particles, the suspending fluid, thecapsule, and binder materials.

An encapsulated electrophoretic display may take many forms. The displaymay comprise capsules dispersed in a binder. The capsules may be of anysize or shape. The capsules may, for example, be spherical and may havediameters in the millimeter range or the micron range, but is preferablyfrom ten to a few hundred microns. The capsules may be formed by anencapsulation technique, as described below. Particles may beencapsulated in the capsules. The particles may be two or more differenttypes of particles. The particles may be colored, luminescent,light-absorbing or transparent, for example. The particles may includeneat pigments, dyed (laked) pigments or pigment/polymer composites, forexample. The display may further comprise a suspending fluid in whichthe particles are dispersed.

The successful construction of an encapsulated electrophoretic displayrequires the proper interaction of several different types of materialsand processes, such as a polymeric binder and, optionally, a capsulemembrane. These materials must be chemically compatible with theelectrophoretic particles and fluid, as well as with each other. Thecapsule materials may engage in useful surface interactions with theelectrophoretic particles, or may act as a chemical or physical boundarybetween the fluid and the binder.

In some cases, the encapsulation step of the process is not necessary,and the electrophoretic fluid may be directly dispersed or emulsifiedinto the binder (or a precursor to the binder materials) and aneffective “polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display” constructed. Insuch displays, voids created in the binder may be referred to ascapsules or microcapsules even though no capsule membrane is present.The binder dispersed electrophoretic display may be of the emulsion orphase separation type.

Throughout the specification, reference will be made to printing orprinted. As used throughout the specification, printing is intended toinclude all forms of printing and coating, including: premeteredcoatings such as patch die coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide orcascade coating, and curtain coating; roll coating such as knife overroll coating, forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dipcoating; spray coating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating;air knife coating; silk screen printing processes; electrostaticprinting processes; thermal printing processes; and other similartechniques. A “printed element” refers to an element formed using anyone of the above techniques.

This invention provides novel methods and apparatus for controlling andaddressing particle-based displays. Additionally, the inventiondiscloses applications of these methods and materials on flexiblesubstrates, which are useful in large-area, low cost, or high-durabilityapplications.

In one aspect, the present invention relates to an encapsulatedelectrophoretic display. The display includes a substrate and at leastone capsule containing a highly-resistive fluid and a plurality ofparticles. The display also includes at least two electrodes disposedadjacent the capsule, a potential difference between the electrodescausing some of the particles to migrate toward at least one of the twoelectrodes. This causes the capsule to change optical properties.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a coloredelectrophoretic display. The electrophoretic display includes asubstrate and at least one capsule containing a highly-resistive fluidand a plurality of particles. The display also includes coloredelectrodes. Potential differences are applied to the electrodes in orderto control the particles and present a colored display to a viewer.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to anelectrostatically addressable display comprising a substrate, anencapsulated electrophoretic display adjacent the substrate, and anoptional dielectric sheet adjacent the electrophoretic display.Application of an electrostatic charge to the dielectric sheet ordisplay material modulates the appearance of the electrophoreticdisplay.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to anelectrostatically addressable encapsulated display comprising a film anda pair of electrodes. The film includes at least one capsule containingan electrophoretic suspension. The pair of electrodes is attached toeither side of the film. Application of an electrostatic charge to thefilm modulates the optical properties.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to anelectrophoretic display that comprises a conductive substrate, and atleast one capsule printed on such substrate. Application of anelectrostatic charge to the capsule modulates the optical properties ofthe display.

In still another aspect the present invention relates to a method formatrix addressing an encapsulated display. The method includes the stepof providing three or more electrodes for each display cell and applyinga sequence of potentials to the electrodes to control movement ofparticles within each cell.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a matrixaddressed electrophoretic display. The display includes a capsulecontaining charged particles and three or more electrodes disposedadjacent the capsule. A sequence of voltage potentials is applied to thethree or more electrodes causing the charged particles to migrate withinthe capsule responsive to the sequence of voltage potentials.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to a rearelectrode structure for electrically addressable displays. The structureincludes a substrate, a first electrode disposed on a first side of thesubstrate, and a conductor disposed on a second side of the substrate.The substrate defines at least one conductive via in electricalcommunication with both the first electrode and the conductor.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention is pointed out with particularity in the appended claims.The advantages of the invention described above, together with furtheradvantages, may be better understood by referring to the followingdescription taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. In thedrawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same partsthroughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarilyto scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating theprinciples of the invention.

FIG. 1A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display inwhich the smaller electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to thelarge electrode causing the particles to migrate to the smallerelectrode.

FIG. 1B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display inwhich the larger electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to thesmaller electrode causing the particles to migrate to the largerelectrode.

FIG. 1C is a diagrammatic top-down view of one embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure.

FIG. 2A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layerassociated with the larger electrode in which the smaller electrode hasbeen placed at a voltage relative to the large electrode causing theparticles to migrate to the smaller electrode.

FIG. 2B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layerassociated with the larger electrode in which the larger electrode hasbeen placed at a voltage relative to the smaller electrode causing theparticles to migrate to the larger electrode.

FIG. 2C is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layerdisposed below the larger electrode in which the smaller electrode hasbeen placed at a voltage relative to the large electrode causing theparticles to migrate to the smaller electrode.

FIG. 2D is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layerdisposed below the larger electrode in which the larger electrode hasbeen placed at a voltage relative to the smaller electrode causing theparticles to migrate to the larger electrode.

FIG. 3A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressingstructure in which a direct-current electric field has been applied tothe capsule causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrode.

FIG. 3B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressingstructure in which an alternating-current electric field has beenapplied to the capsule causing the particles to disperse into thecapsule.

FIG. 3C is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressingstructure having transparent electrodes, in which a direct-currentelectric field has been applied to the capsule causing the particles tomigrate to the smaller electrode.

FIG. 3D is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressingstructure having transparent electrodes, in which an alternating-currentelectric field has been applied to the capsule causing the particles todisperse into the capsule.

FIG. 4A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display inwhich multiple smaller electrodes have been placed at a voltage relativeto multiple larger electrodes, causing the particles to migrate to thesmaller electrodes.

FIG. 4B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display inwhich multiple larger electrodes have been placed at a voltage relativeto multiple smaller electrodes, causing the particles to migrate to thelarger electrodes.

FIG. 5A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display havingcolored electrodes and a white electrode, in which the coloredelectrodes have been placed at a voltage relative to the white electrodecausing the particles to migrate to the colored electrodes.

FIG. 5B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of arear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display havingcolored electrodes and a white electrode, in which the white electrodehas been placed at a voltage relative to the colored electrodes causingthe particles to migrate to the white electrode.

FIG. 6 is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a color displayelement having red, green, and blue particles of differentelectrophoretic mobilities.

FIGS. 7A-7B depict the steps taken to address the display of FIG. 6 todisplay red.

FIGS. 8A-8D depict the steps taken to address the display of FIG. 6 todisplay blue.

FIGS. 9A-9C depict the steps taken to address the display of FIG. 6 todisplay green.

FIG. 10 is a perspective embodiment of a rear electrode structure foraddressing a seven segment display.

FIG. 11 is a perspective embodiment of a rear electrode structure foraddressing a three by three matrix display element.

FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a printed circuit board used as arear electrode addressing structure.

FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of a dielectric sheet used as a rearelectrode addressing structure.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of a rear electrode addressingstructure that is formed by printing.

FIG. 15 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a control gridaddressing structure.

FIG. 16 is an embodiment of an electrophoretic display that can beaddressed using a stylus.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

An electronic ink is an optoelectronically active material whichcomprises at least two phases: an electrophoretic contrast media phaseand a coating/binding phase. The electrophoretic phase comprises, insome embodiments, a single species of electrophoretic particlesdispersed in a clear or dyed medium, or more than one species ofelectrophoretic particles having distinct physical and electricalcharacteristics dispersed in a clear or dyed medium. In some embodimentsthe electrophoretic phase is encapsulated, that is, there is a capsulewall phase between the two phases. The coating/binding phase includes,in one embodiment, a polymer matrix that surrounds the electrophoreticphase. In this embodiment, the polymer in the polymeric binder iscapable of being dried, crosslinked, or otherwise cured as intraditional inks, and therefore a printing process can be used todeposit the electronic ink onto a substrate. An electronic ink iscapable of being printed by several different processes, depending onthe mechanical properties of the specific ink employed. For example, thefragility or viscosity of a particular ink may result in a differentprocess selection. A very viscous ink would not be well-suited todeposition by an inkjet printing process, while a fragile ink might notbe used in a knife over roll coating process.

The optical quality of an electronic ink is quite distinct from otherelectronic display materials. The most notable difference is that theelectronic ink provides a high degree of both reflectance and contrastbecause it is pigment based (as are ordinary printing inks). The lightscattered from the electronic ink comes from a very thin layer ofpigment close to the top of the viewing surface. In this respect itresembles an ordinary, printed image. Also, electronic ink is easilyviewed from a wide range of viewing angles in the same manner as aprinted page, and such ink approximates a Lambertian contrast curve moreclosely than any other electronic display material. Since electronic inkcan be printed, it can be included on the same surface with any otherprinted material, including traditional inks. Electronic ink can be madeoptically stable in all display configurations, that is, the ink can beset to a persistent optical state. Fabrication of a display by printingan electronic ink is particularly useful in low power applicationsbecause of this stability.

Electronic ink displays are novel in that they can be addressed by DCvoltages and draw very little current. As such, the conductive leads andelectrodes used to deliver the voltage to electronic ink displays can beof relatively high resistivity. The ability to use resistive conductorssubstantially widens the number and type of materials that can be usedas conductors in electronic ink displays. In particular, the use ofcostly vacuum-sputtered indium tin oxide (ITO) conductors, a standardmaterial in liquid crystal devices, is not required. Aside from costsavings, the replacement of ITO with other materials can providebenefits in appearance, processing capabilities (printed conductors),flexibility, and durability. Additionally, the printed electrodes are incontact only with a solid binder, not with a fluid layer (like liquidcrystals). This means that some conductive materials, which wouldotherwise dissolve or be degraded by contact with liquid crystals, canbe used in an electronic ink application. These include opaque metallicinks for the rear electrode (e.g., silver and graphite inks), as well asconductive transparent inks for either substrate. These conductivecoatings include semiconducting colloids, examples of which are indiumtin oxide and antimony-doped tin oxide. Organic conductors (polymericconductors and molecular organic conductors) also may be used. Polymersinclude, but are not limited to, polyaniline and derivatives,polythiophene and derivatives, poly3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT)and derivatives, polypyrrole and derivatives, and polyphenylenevinylene(PPV) and derivatives. Organic molecular conductors include, but are notlimited to, derivatives of naphthalene, phthalocyanine, and pentacene.Polymer layers can be made thinner and more transparent than withtraditional displays because conductivity requirements are not asstringent.

As an example, there are a class of materials called electroconductivepowders which are also useful as coatable transparent conductors inelectronic ink displays. One example is Zelec ECP electroconductivepowders from DuPont Chemical Co. of Wilmington, Del.

Referring now to FIGS. 1A and 1B, an addressing scheme for controllingparticle-based displays is shown in which electrodes are disposed ononly one side of a display, allowing the display to be rear-addressed.Utilizing only one side of the display for electrodes simplifiesfabrication of displays. For example, if the electrodes are disposed ononly the rear side of a display, both of the electrodes can befabricated using opaque materials, because the electrodes do not need tobe transparent.

FIG. 1A depicts a single capsule 20 of an encapsulated display media. Inbrief overview, the embodiment depicted in FIG. 1A includes a capsule 20containing at least one particle 50 dispersed in a suspending fluid 25.The capsule 20 is addressed by a first electrode 30 and a secondelectrode 40. The first electrode 30 is smaller than the secondelectrode 40. The first electrode 30 and the second electrode 40 may beset to voltage potentials which affect the position of the particles 50in the capsule 20.

The particles 50 represent 0.1% to 20% of the volume enclosed by thecapsule 20. In some embodiments the particles 50 represent 2.5% to 17.5%of the volume enclosed by capsule 20. In preferred embodiments, theparticles 50 represent 5% to 15% of the volume enclosed by the capsule20. In more preferred embodiments the particles 50 represent 9% to 11%of the volume defined by the capsule 20. In general, the volumepercentage of the capsule 20 that the particles 50 represent should beselected so that the particles 50 expose most of the second, largerelectrode 40 when positioned over the first, smaller electrode 30. Asdescribed in detail below, the particles 50 may be colored any one of anumber of colors. The particles 50 may be either positively charged ornegatively charged.

The particles 50 are dispersed in a dispersing fluid 25. The dispersingfluid 25 should have a low dielectric constant. The fluid 25 may beclear, or substantially clear, so that the fluid 25 does not inhibitviewing the particles 50 and the electrodes 30, 40 from position 10. Inother embodiments, the fluid 25 is dyed. In some embodiments thedispersing fluid 25 has a specific gravity matched to the density of theparticles 50. These embodiments can provide a bistable display media,because the particles 50 do not tend to move in certain compositionsabsent an electric field applied via the electrodes 30, 40.

The electrodes 30, 40 should be sized and positioned appropriately sothat together they address the entire capsule 20. There may be exactlyone pair of electrodes 30, 40 per capsule 20, multiple pairs ofelectrodes 30, 40 per capsule 20, or a single pair of electrodes 30, 40may span multiple capsules 20. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1A and1B, the capsule 20 has a flattened, rectangular shape. In theseembodiments, the electrodes 30, 40 should address most, or all, of theflattened surface area adjacent the electrodes 30, 40. The smallerelectrode 30 is at most one-half the size of the larger electrode 40. Inpreferred embodiments the smaller electrode is one-quarter the size ofthe larger electrode 40; in more preferred embodiments the smallerelectrode 30 is one-eighth the size of the larger electrode 40. In evenmore preferred embodiments, the smaller electrode 30 is one-sixteenththe size of the larger electrode 40. It should be noted that referenceto “smaller” in connection with the electrode 30 means that theelectrode 30 addresses a smaller amount of the surface area of thecapsule 20, not necessarily that the electrode 30 is physically smallerthan the larger electrode 40. For example, multiple capsules 20 may bepositioned such that less of each capsule 20 is addressed by the“smaller” electrode 30, even though both electrodes 30, 40 are equal insize. It should also be noted that, as shown in FIG. 1C, electrode 30may address only a small corner of a rectangular capsule 20 (shown inphantom view in FIG. 1C), requiring the larger electrode 40 to surroundthe smaller electrode 30 on two sides in order to properly address thecapsule 20. Selection of the percentage volume of the particles 50 andthe electrodes 30, 40 in this manner allow the encapsulated displaymedia to be addressed as described below.

Electrodes may be fabricated from any material capable of conductingelectricity so that electrode 30, 40 may apply an electric field to thecapsule 20. As noted above, the rear-addressed embodiments depicted inFIGS. 1A and 1B allow the electrodes 30, 40 to be fabricated from opaquematerials such as solder paste, copper, copper-clad polyimide, graphiteinks, silver inks and other metal-containing conductive inks.Alternatively, electrodes may be fabricated using transparent materialssuch as indium tin oxide and conductive polymers such as polyaniline orpolythiopenes. Electrodes 30, 40 may be provided with contrastingoptical properties. In some embodiments, one of the electrodes has anoptical property complementary to optical properties of the particles50.

In one embodiment, the capsule 20 contains positively charged blackparticles 50, and a substantially clear suspending fluid 25. The first,smaller electrode 30 is colored black, and is smaller than the secondelectrode 40, which is colored white or is highly reflective. When thesmaller, black electrode 30 is placed at a negative voltage potentialrelative to larger, white electrode 40, the positively-charged particles50 migrate to the smaller, black electrode 30. The effect to a viewer ofthe capsule 20 located at position 10 is a mixture of the larger, whiteelectrode 40 and the smaller, black electrode 30, creating an effectwhich is largely white. Referring to FIG. 1B, when the smaller, blackelectrode 30 is placed at a positive voltage potential relative to thelarger, white electrode 40, particles 50 migrate to the larger, whiteelectrode 40 and the viewer is presented a mixture of the blackparticles 50 covering the larger, white electrode 40 and the smaller,black electrode 30, creating an effect which is largely black. In thismanner the capsule 20 may be addressed to display either a white visualstate or a black visual state.

Other two-color schemes are easily provided by varying the color of thesmaller electrode 30 and the particles 50 or by varying the color of thelarger electrode 40. For example, varying the color of the largerelectrode 40 allows fabrication of a rear-addressed, two-color displayhaving black as one of the colors. Alternatively, varying the color ofthe smaller electrode 30 and the particles 50 allow a rear-addressedtwo-color system to be fabricated having white as one of the colors.Further, it is contemplated that the particles 50 and the smallerelectrode 30 can be different colors. In these embodiments, a two-colordisplay may be fabricated having a second color that is different fromthe color of the smaller electrode 30 and the particles 50. For example,a rear-addressed, orange-white display may be fabricated by providingblue particles 50, a red, smaller electrode 30, and a white (or highlyreflective) larger electrode 40. In general, the optical properties ofthe electrodes 30, 40 and the particles 50 can be independently selectedto provide desired display characteristics. In some embodiments theoptical properties of the dispersing fluid 25 may also be varied, e.g.the fluid 25 may be dyed.

In other embodiments the larger electrode 40 may be reflective insteadof white. In these embodiments, when the particles 50 are moved to thesmaller electrode 30, light reflects off the reflective surface 60associated with the larger electrode 40 and the capsule 20 appears lightin color, e.g. white (see FIG. 2A). When the particles 50 are moved tothe larger electrode 40, the reflecting surface 60 is obscured and thecapsule 20 appears dark (see FIG. 2B) because light is absorbed by theparticles 50 before reaching the reflecting surface 60. The reflectingsurface 60 for the larger electrode 40 may possess retroflectiveproperties, specular reflection properties, diffuse reflectiveproperties or gain reflection properties. In certain embodiments, thereflective surface 60 reflects light with a Lambertian distribution Thesurface 60 may be provided as a plurality of glass spheres disposed onthe electrode 40, a diffractive reflecting layer such as aholographically formed reflector, a surface patterned to totallyinternally reflect incident light, a brightness-enhancing film, adiffuse reflecting layer, an embossed plastic or metal film, or anyother known reflecting surface. The reflecting surface 60 may beprovided as a separate layer laminated onto the larger electrode 40 orthe reflecting surface 60 may be provided as a unitary part of thelarger electrode 40. In the embodiments depicted by FIGS. 2C and 2D, thereflecting surface may be disposed below the electrodes 30, 40 vis-à-visthe viewpoint 10. In these embodiments, electrode 30 should betransparent so that light may be reflected by surface 60. In otherembodiments, proper switching of the particles may be accomplished witha combination of alternating-current (AC) and direct-current (DC)electric fields and described below in connection with FIGS. 3A-3D.

In still other embodiments, the rear-addressed display previouslydiscussed can be configured to transition between largely transmissiveand largely opaque modes of operation (referred to hereafter as “shuttermode”). Referring back to FIGS. 1A and 1B, in these embodiments thecapsule 20 contains at least one positively-charged particle 50dispersed in a substantially clear dispersing fluid 25. The largerelectrode 40 is transparent and the smaller electrode 30 is opaque. Whenthe smaller, opaque electrode 30 is placed at a negative voltagepotential relative to the larger, transmissive electrode 40, theparticles 50 migrate to the smaller, opaque electrode 30. The effect toa viewer of the capsule 20 located at position 10 is a mixture of thelarger, transparent electrode 40 and the smaller, opaque electrode 30,creating an effect which is largely transparent. Referring to FIG. 1B,when the smaller, opaque electrode 30 is placed at a positive voltagepotential relative to the larger, transparent electrode 40, particles 50migrate to the second electrode 40 and the viewer is presented a mixtureof the opaque particles 50 covering the larger, transparent electrode 40and the smaller, opaque electrode 30, creating an effect which islargely opaque. In this manner, a display formed using the capsulesdepicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B may be switched between transmissive andopaque modes. Such a display can be used to construct a window that canbe rendered opaque. Although FIGS. 1A-2D depict a pair of electrodesassociated with each capsule 20, it should be understood that each pairof electrodes may be associated with more than one capsule 20.

A similar technique may be used in connection with the embodiment ofFIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C, and 3D. Referring to FIG. 3A, a capsule 20 contains atleast one dark or black particle 50 dispersed in a substantially cleardispersing fluid 25. A smaller, opaque electrode 30 and a larger,transparent electrode 40 apply both direct-current (DC) electric fieldsand alternating-current (AC) fields to the capsule 20. A DC field can beapplied to the capsule 20 to cause the particles 50 to migrate towardsthe smaller electrode 30. For example, if the particles 50 arepositively charged, the smaller electrode is placed a voltage that ismore negative than the larger electrode 40. Although FIGS. 3A-3D depictonly one capsule per electrode pair, multiple capsules may be addressedusing the same electrode pair.

The smaller electrode 30 is at most one-half the size of the largerelectrode 40. In preferred embodiments the smaller electrode isone-quarter the size of the larger electrode 40; in more preferredembodiments the smaller electrode 30 is one-eighth the size of thelarger electrode 40. In even more preferred embodiments, the smallerelectrode 30 is one-sixteenth the size of the larger electrode 40.

Causing the particles 50 to migrate to the smaller electrode 30, asdepicted in FIG. 3A, allows incident light to pass through the larger,transparent electrode 40 and be reflected by a reflecting surface 60. Inshutter mode, the reflecting surface 60 is replaced by a translucentlayer, a transparent layer, or a layer is not provided at all, andincident light is allowed to pass through the capsule 20, i.e. thecapsule 20 is transmissive.

Referring now to FIG. 3B, the particles 50 are dispersed into thecapsule 20 by applying an AC field to the capsule 20 via the electrodes30, 40. The particles 50, dispersed into the capsule 20 by the AC field,block incident light from passing through the capsule 20, causing it toappear dark at the viewpoint 10. The embodiment depicted in FIGS. 3A-3Bmay be used in shutter mode by not providing the reflecting surface 60and instead providing a translucent layer, a transparent layer, or nolayer at all. In shutter mode, application of an AC electric fieldcauses the capsule 20 to appear opaque. The transparency of a shuttermode display formed by the apparatus depicted in FIGS. 3A-3D may becontrolled by the number of capsules addressed using DC fields and ACfields. For example, a display in which every other capsule 20 isaddressed using an AC field would appear fifty percent transmissive.

FIGS. 3C and 3D depict an embodiment of the electrode structuredescribed above in which electrodes 30, 40 are on “top” of the capsule20, that is, the electrodes 30, 40 are between the viewpoint 10 and thecapsule 20. In these embodiments, both electrodes 30, 40 should betransparent. Transparent polymers can be fabricated using conductivepolymers, such as polyaniline, polythiophenes, or indium tin oxide.These materials may be made soluble so that electrodes can be fabricatedusing coating techniques such as spin coating, spray coating, meniscuscoating, printing techniques, forward and reverse roll coating and thelike. In these embodiments, light passes through the electrodes 30, 40and is either absorbed by the particles 50, reflected by retroreflectinglayer 60 (when provided), or transmitted throughout the capsule 20 (whenretroreflecting layer 60 is not provided).

The addressing structure depicted in FIGS. 3A-3D may be used withelectrophoretic display media and encapsulated electrophoretic displaymedia. FIGS. 3A-3D depict embodiments in which electrode 30, 40 arestatically attached to the display media. In certain embodiments, theparticles 50 exhibit bistability, that is, they are substantiallymotionless in the absence of a electric field. In these embodiments, theelectrodes 30, 40 may be provided as part of a “stylus” or other devicewhich is scanned over the material to address each capsule or cluster ofcapsules. This mode of addressing particle-based displays will bedescribed in more detail below in connection with FIG. 16.

Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 4B, a capsule 20 of a electronicallyaddressable media is illustrated in which the technique illustratedabove is used with multiple rear-addressing electrodes. The capsule 20contains at least one particle 50 dispersed in a clear suspending fluid25. The capsule 20 is addressed by multiple smaller electrodes 30 andmultiple larger electrodes 40. In these embodiments, the smallerelectrodes 30 should be selected to collectively be at most one-half thesize of the larger electrodes 40. In further embodiments, the smallerelectrodes 30 are collectively one-fourth the size of the largerelectrodes 40. In further embodiments the smaller electrodes 30 arecollectively one-eighth the size of the larger electrodes 40. Inpreferred embodiments, the smaller electrodes 30 are collectivelyone-sixteenth the size of the larger electrodes. Each electrode 30 maybe provided as separate electrodes that are controlled in parallel tocontrol the display. For example, each separate electrode may besubstantially simultaneously set to the same voltage as all otherelectrodes of that size. Alternatively, the electrodes 30, 40 may beinterdigitated to provide the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B.

Operation of the rear-addressing electrode structure depicted in FIGS.4A and 4B is similar to that described above. For example, the capsule20 may contain positively charged, black particles 50 dispersed in asubstantially clear suspending fluid 25. The smaller electrodes 30 arecolored black and the larger electrodes 40 are colored white or arehighly reflective. Referring to FIG. 4A, the smaller electrodes 30 areplaced at a negative potential relative to the larger electrodes 40,causing particles 50 migrate within the capsule to the smallerelectrodes 30 and the capsule 20 appears to the viewpoint 10 as a mix ofthe larger, white electrodes 40 and the smaller, black electrodes 30,creating an effect which is largely white. Referring to FIG. 4B, whenthe smaller electrodes 30 are placed at a positive potential relative tothe larger electrodes 40, particles 50 migrate to the larger electrodes40 causing the capsule 20 to display a mix of the larger, whiteelectrodes 40 occluded by the black particles 50 and the smaller, blackelectrodes 30, creating an effect which is largely black. The techniquesdescribed above with respect to the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 1A and1B for producing two-color displays work with equal effectiveness inconnection with these embodiments.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrodestructure that creates a reflective color display in a manner similar tohalftoning or pointillism. The capsule 20 contains white particles 55dispersed in a clear suspending fluid 25. Electrodes 42, 44, 46, 48 arecolored cyan, magenta, yellow, and white respectively. Referring to FIG5A, when the colored electrodes 42, 44, 46 are placed at a positivepotential relative to the white electrode 48, negatively-chargedparticles 55 migrate to these three electrodes, causing the capsule 20to present to the viewpoint 10 a mix of the white particles 55 and thewhite electrode 48, creating an effect which is largely white. Referringto FIG. 5B, when electrodes 42, 44, 46 are placed at a negativepotential relative to electrode 48, particles 55 migrate to the whiteelectrode 48, and the eye 10 sees a mix of the white particles 55, thecyan electrode 42, the magenta electrode 44, and the yellow electrode46, creating an effect which is largely black or gray. By addressing theelectrodes, any color can be produced that is possible with asubtractive color process. For example, to cause the capsule 20 todisplay an orange color to the viewpoint 10, the yellow electrode 46 andthe magenta electrode 42 are set to a voltage potential that is morepositive than the voltage potential applied by the cyan electrode 42 andthe white electrode 48. Further, the relative intensities of thesecolors can be controlled by the actual voltage potentials applied to theelectrodes.

In another embodiment, depicted in FIG. 6, a color display is providedby a capsule 20 of size d containing multiple species of particles in aclear, dispersing fluid 25. Each species of particles has differentoptical properties and possess different electrophoretic mobilities (μ)from the other species. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6, thecapsule 20 contains red particles 52, blue particles 54, and greenparticles 56, and

 |μ_(R)|>|μ_(B)|>|μ_(G)|

That is, the magnitude of the electrophoretic mobility of the redparticles 52, on average, exceeds the electrophoretic mobility of theblue particles 54, on average, and the electrophoretic mobility of theblue particles 54, on average, exceeds the average electrophoreticmobility of the green particles 56. As an example, there may be aspecies of red particle with a zeta potential of 100 millivolts (mV), ablue particle with a zeta potential of 60 mV, and a green particle witha zeta potential of 20 mV. The capsule 20 is placed between twoelectrodes 32, 42 that apply an electric field to the capsule.

FIGS. 7A-7B depict the steps to be taken to address the display shown inFIG. 6 to display a red color to a viewpoint 10. Referring to FIG. 7A,all the particles 52, 54, 56 are attracted to one side of the capsule 20by applying an electric field in one direction. The electric fieldshould be applied to the capsule 20 long enough to attract even the moreslowly moving green particles 56 to the electrode 34. Referring to FIG.7B, the electric field is reversed just long enough to allow the redparticles 52 to migrate towards the electrode 32. The blue particles 54and green particles 56 will also move in the reversed electric field,but they will not move as fast as the red particles 52 and thus will beobscured by the red particles 52. The amount of time for which theapplied electric field must be reversed can be determined from therelative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength ofthe applied electric field, and the size of the capsule.

FIGS. 8A-8D depict addressing the display element to a blue state. Asshown in FIG. 8A, the particles 52, 54, 56 are initially randomlydispersed in the capsule 20. All the particles 52, 54, 56 are attractedto one side of the capsule 20 by applying an electric field in onedirection (shown in FIG. 8B). Referring to FIG. 8C, the electric fieldis reversed just long enough to allow the red particles 52 and blueparticles 54 to migrate towards the electrode 32. The amount of time forwhich the applied electric field must be reversed can be determined fromthe relative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strengthof the applied electric field, and the size of the capsule. Referring toFIG. 8D, the electric field is then reversed a second time and the redparticles 52, moving faster than the blue particles 54, leave the blueparticles 54 exposed to the viewpoint 10. The amount of time for whichthe applied electric field must be reversed can be determined from therelative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength ofthe applied electric field, and the size of the capsule.

FIGS. 9A-9C depict the steps to be taken to present a green display tothe viewpoint 10. As shown in FIG. 9A, the particles 52, 54, 56 areinitially distributed randomly in the capsule 20. All the particles 52,54, 56 are attracted to the side of the capsule 20 proximal theviewpoint 10 by applying an electric field in one direction. Theelectric field should be applied to the capsule 20 long enough toattract even the more slowly moving green particles 56 to the electrode32. As shown in FIG. 9C, the electric field is reversed just long enoughto allow the red particles 52 and the blue particles 54 to migratetowards the electrode 54, leaving the slowly-moving green particles 56displayed to the viewpoint. The amount of time for which the appliedelectric field must be reversed can be determined from the relativeelectrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength of the appliedelectric field, and the size of the capsule.

In other embodiments, the capsule contains multiple species of particlesand a dyed dispersing fluid that acts as one of the colors. In stillother embodiments, more than three species of particles may be providedhaving additional colors. Although FIGS. 6-9C depict two electrodesassociated with a single capsule, the electrodes may address multiplecapsules or less than a full capsule

In FIG. 10, the rear substrate 100 for a seven segment display is shownthat improves on normal rear electrode structures by providing a meansfor arbitrarily connecting to any electrode section on the rear of thedisplay without the need for conductive trace lines on the surface ofthe patterned substrate or a patterned counter electrode on the front ofthe display. Small conductive vias through the substrate allowconnections to the rear electrode structure. On the back of thesubstrate, these vias are connected to a network of conductors. Thisconductors can be run so as to provide a simple connection to the entiredisplay. For example, segment 112 is connected by via 114 through thesubstrate 116 to conductor 118. A network of conductors may run multipleconnections (not shown) to edge connector 122. This connector can bebuilt into the structure of the conductor such as edge connector 122.Each segment of the rear electrode can be individually addressed easilythrough edge connector 122. A continuous top electrode can be used withthe substrate 116.

The rear electrode structure depicted in FIG. 10 is useful for anydisplay media, but is particularly advantageous for particle-baseddisplays because such displays do not have a defined appearance when notaddressed. The rear electrode should be completely covered in anelectrically conducting material with room only to provide necessaryinsulation of the various electrodes. This is so that the connections onthe rear of the display can be routed with out concern for affecting theappearance of the display. Having a mostly continuous rear electrodepattern assures that the display material is shielded from the rearelectrode wire routing.

In FIG. 11, a 3×3 matrix is shown. Here, matrix segment 124 on a firstside of substrate 116 is connected by via 114 to conductor 118 on asecond side of substrate 116. The conductors 18 run to an edge andterminate in a edge connector 122. Although the display element of FIG.11 shows square segments 124, the segments may be shaped or sized toform a predefined display pattern.

In FIG. 12, a printed circuit board 138 is used as the rear electrodestructure. The front of the printed circuit board 138 has copper pads132 etched in the desired shape. There are plated vias 114 connectingthese electrode pads to an etched wire structure 136 on the rear of theprinted circuit board 138. The wires 136 can be run to one side or therear of the printed circuit board 138 and a connection can be made usinga standard connector such as a surface mount connector or using a flexconnector and anisotropic glue (not shown). Vias may be filled with aconductive substance, such as solder or conductive epoxy, or aninsulating substance, such as epoxy.

Alternatively, a flex circuit such a copper-clad polyimide may beused-for the rear electrode structure of FIG. 10. Printed circuit board138 may be made of polyimide, which acts both as the flex connector andas the substrate for the electrode structure. Rather than copper pads132, electrodes (not shown) may be etched into the copper covering thepolyimide printed circuit board 138. The plated through vias 114 connectthe electrodes etched onto the substrate the rear of the printed circuitboard 138, which may have an etched conductor network thereon (theetched conductor network is similar to the etched wire structure 136).

In FIG. 13, a thin dielectric sheet 150, such as polyester, polyimide,or glass can be used to make a rear electrode structure. Holes 152 arepunched, drilled, abraded, or melted through the sheet where conductivepaths are desired. The front electrode 154 is made of conductive inkprinted using any technique described above. The holes should be sizedand the ink should be selected to have a viscosity so that the ink fillsthe holes. When the back structure 156 is printed, again usingconductive ink, the holes are again filled. By this method, theconnection between the front and back of the substrate is madeautomatically.

In FIG. 14, the rear electrode structure can be made entirely of printedlayers. A conductive layer 166 can be printed onto the back of a displaycomprised of a clear, front electrode 168 and a printable displaymaterial 170. A clear electrode may be fabricated from indium tin oxideor conductive polymers such as polyanilines and polythiophenes. Adielectric coating 176 can be printed leaving areas for vias. Then, theback layer of conductive ink 178 can be printed. If necessary, anadditional layer of conductive ink can be used before the final inkstructure is printed to fill in the holes.

This technique for printing displays can be used to build the rearelectrode structure on a display or to construct two separate layersthat are laminated together to form the display. For example anelectronically active ink may be printed on an indium tin oxideelectrode. Separately, a rear electrode structure as described above canbe printed on a suitable substrate, such as plastic, polymer films, orglass. The electrode structure and the display element can be laminatedto form a display.

Referring now to FIG. 15, a threshold may be introduced into anelectrophoretic display cell by the introduction of a third electrode.One side of the cell is a continuous, transparent electrode 200 (anode).On the other side of the cell, the transparent electrode is patternedinto a set of isolated column electrode strips 210. An insulator 212covers the column electrodes 210, and an electrode layer on top of theinsulator is divided into a set of isolated row electrode strips 230,which are oriented orthogonal to the column electrodes 210. The rowelectrodes 230 are patterned into a dense array of holes, or a grid,beneath which the exposed insulator 212 has been removed, forming amultiplicity of physical and potential wells.

A positively charged particle 50 is loaded into the potential wells byapplying a positive potential (e.g. 30V) to all the column electrodes210 while keeping the row electrodes 230 at a less positive potential(e.g. 15V) and the anode 200 at zero volts. The particle 50 may be aconformable capsule that situates itself into the physical wells of thecontrol grid. The control grid itself may have a rectangularcross-section, or the grid structure may be triangular in profile. Itcan also be a different shape which encourages the microcapsules tosituate in the grid, for example, hemispherical.

The anode 200 is then reset to a positive potential (e.g. 50V). Theparticle will remain in the potential wells due to the potentialdifference in the potential wells: this is called the Hold condition. Toaddress a display element the potential on the column electrodeassociated with that element is reduced, e.g. by a factor of two, andthe potential on the row electrode associated with that element is madeequal to or greater than the potential on the column electrode. Theparticles in this element will then be transported by the electric fielddue to the positive voltage on the anode 200. The potential differencebetween row and column electrodes for the remaining display elements isnow less than half of that in the normal Hold condition. The geometry ofthe potential well structure and voltage levels are chosen such thatthis also constitutes a Hold condition, i.e., no particles will leavethese other display elements and hence there will be no half-selectproblems. This addressing method can select and write any desiredelement in a matrix without affecting the pigment in any other displayelement. A control electrode device can be operated such that the anodeelectrode side of the cell is viewed.

The control grid may be manufactured through any of the processes knownin the art, or by several novel processes described herein. That is,according to traditional practices, the control grid may be constructedwith one or more steps of photolithography and subsequent etching, orthe control grid may be fabricated with a mask and a “sandblasting”technique.

In another embodiment, the control grid is fabricated by an embossingtechnique on a plastic substrate. The grid electrodes may be depositedby vacuum deposition or sputtering, either before or after the embossingstep. In another embodiment, the electrodes are printed onto the gridstructure after it is formed, the electrodes consisting of some kind ofprintable conductive material which need not be clear (e.g. a metal orcarbon-doped polymer, an intrinsically conducting polymer, etc.).

In a preferred embodiment, the control grid is fabricated with a seriesof printing steps. The grid structure is built up in a series of one ormore printed layers after the cathode has been deposited, and the gridelectrode is printed onto the grid structure. There may be additionalinsulator on top of the grid electrode, and there may be multiple gridelectrodes separated by insulator in the grid structure. The gridelectrode may not occupy the entire width of the grid structure, and mayonly occupy a central region of the structure, in order to stay withinreproducible tolerances. In another embodiment, the control grid isfabricated by photoetching away a glass, such as a photostructuralglass.

In an encapsulated electrophoretic image display, an electrophoreticsuspension, such as the ones described previously, is placed insidediscrete compartments that are dispersed in a polymer matrix. Thisresulting material is highly susceptible to an electric field across thethickness of the film. Such a field is normally applied using electrodesattached to either side of the material. However, as described above inconnection with FIGS. 3A-3D, some display media may be addressed bywriting electrostatic charge onto one side of the display material. Theother side normally has a clear or opaque electrode. For example, asheet of encapsulated electrophoretic display media can be addressedwith a head providing DC voltages.

In another implementation, the encapsulated electrophoretic suspensioncan be printed onto an area of a conductive material such as a printedsilver or graphite ink, aluminized mylar, or any other conductivesurface. This surface which constitutes one electrode of the display canbe set at ground or high voltage. An electrostatic head consisting ofmany electrodes can be passed over the capsules to addressing them.Alternatively, a stylus can be used to address the encapsulatedelectrophoretic suspension.

In another implementation, an electrostatic write head is passed overthe surface of the material. This allows very high resolutionaddressing. Since encapsulated electrophoretic material can be placed onplastic, it is flexible. This allows the material to be passed throughnormal paper handling equipment. Such a system works much like aphotocopier, but with no consumables. The sheet of display materialpasses through the machine and an electrostatic or electrophotographichead addresses the sheet of material.

In another implementation, electrical charge is built up on the surfaceof the encapsulated display material or on a dielectric sheet throughfrictional or triboelectric charging. The charge can built up using anelectrode that is later removed. In another implementation, charge isbuilt up on the surface of the encapsulated display by using a sheet ofpiezoelectric material.

FIG. 16 shows an electrostatically written display. Stylus 300 isconnected to a positive or negative voltage. The head of the stylus 300can be insulated to protect the user. Dielectric layer 302 can be, forexample, a dielectric coating or a film of polymer. In otherembodiments, dielectric layer 302 is not provided and the stylus 300contacts the encapsulated electrophoretic display 304 directly.Substrate 306 is coated with a clear conductive coating such as ITOcoated polyester. The conductive coating is connected to ground. Thedisplay 304 may be viewed from either side.

Microencapsulated displays offer a useful means of creatingelectronic-displays, many of which can be coated or printed. There aremany versions of microencapsulated displays, including microencapsulatedelectrophoretic displays. These displays can be made to be highlyreflective, bistable, and low power.

To obtain high resolution displays, it is useful to use some externaladdressing means with the microencapsulated material. This inventiondescribes useful combinations of addressing means with microencapsulatedelectrophoretic materials in order to obtain high resolution displays.

One method of addressing liquid crystal displays is the use ofsilicon-based thin film transistors to form an addressing backplane forthe liquid crystal. For liquid crystal displays, these thin filmtransistors are typically deposited on glass, and are typically madefrom amorphous silicon or polysilicon. Other electronic circuits (suchas drive electronics or logic) are sometimes integrated into theperiphery of the display. An emerging field is the deposition ofamorphous or polysilicon devices onto flexible substrates such as metalfoils or plastic films.

The addressing electronic backplane could incorporate diodes as thenonlinear element, rather than transistors. Diode-based active matrixarrays have been demonstrated as being compatible with liquid crystaldisplays to form high resolution devices.

There are also examples of crystalline silicon transistors being used onglass substrates. Crystalline silicon possesses very high mobilities,and thus can be used to make high performance devices. Presently, themost straightforward way of constructing crystalline silicon devices ison a silicon wafer. For use in many types of liquid crystal displays,the crystalline silicon circuit is constructed on a silicon wafer, andthen transferred to a glass substrate by a “liftoff” process.Alternatively, the silicon transistors can be formed on a silicon wafer,removed via a liftoff process, and then deposited on a flexiblesubstrate such as plastic, metal foil, or paper. As anotherimplementation, the silicon could be formed on a different substratethat is able to tolerate high temperatures (such as glass or metalfoils), lifted off, and transferred to a flexible substrate. As yetanother implementation, the silicon transistors are formed on a siliconwafer, which is then used in whole or in part as one of the substratesfor the display.

The use of silicon-based circuits with liquid crystals is the basis of alarge industry. Nevertheless, these display possess serious drawbacks.Liquid crystal displays are inefficient with light, so that most liquidcrystal displays require some sort of backlighting. Reflective liquidcrystal displays can be constructed, but are typically very dim, due tothe presence of polarizers. Most liquid crystal devices require precisespacing of the cell gap, so that they are not very compatible withflexible substrates. Most liquid crystal displays require a “rubbing”process to align the liquid crystals, which is both difficult to controland has the potential for damaging the TFT array.

The combination of these thin film transistors with microencapsulatedelectrophoretic displays should be even more advantageous than withliquid crystal displays. Thin film transistor arrays similar to thoseused with liquid crystals could also be used with the microencapsulateddisplay medium. As noted above, liquid crystal arrays typically requiresa “rubbing” process to align the liquid crystals, which can cause eithermechanical or static electrical damage to the transistor array. No suchrubbing is needed for microencapsulated displays, improving yields andsimplifying the construction process.

Microencapsulated electrophoretic displays can be highly reflective.This provides an advantage in high-resolution displays, as a backlightis not required for good visibility. Also, a high-resolution display canbe built on opaque substrates, which opens up a range of new materialsfor the deposition of thin film transistor arrays.

Moreover, the encapsulated electrophoretic display is highly compatiblewith flexible substrates. This enables high-resolution TFT displays inwhich the transistors are deposited on flexible substrates like flexibleglass, plastics, or metal foils. The flexible substrate used with anytype of thin film transistor or other nonlinear element need not be asingle sheet of glass, plastic, metal foil, though. Instead, it could beconstructed of paper. Alternatively, it could be constructed of a wovenmaterial. Alternatively, it could be a composite or layered combinationof these materials.

As in liquid crystal displays, external logic or drive circuitry can bebuilt on the same substrate as the thin film transistor switches.

In another implementation, the addressing electronic backplane couldincorporate diodes as the nonlinear element, rather than transistors.

In another implementation, it is possible to form transistors on asilicon wafer, dice the transistors, and place them in a large areaarray to form a large, TFT-addressed display medium. One example of thisconcept is to form mechanical impressions in the receiving substrate,and then cover the substrate with a slurry or other form of thetransistors. With agitation, the transistors will fall into theimpressions, where they can be bonded and incorporated into the devicecircuitry. The receiving substrate could be glass, plastic, or othernonconductive material. In this way, the economy of creating transistorsusing standard processing methods can be used to create large-areadisplays without the need for large area silicon processing equipment.

While the examples described here are listed using encapsulatedelectrophoretic displays, there are other particle-based display mediawhich should also work as well, including encapsulated suspendedparticles and rotating ball displays.

While the invention has been particularly shown and described withreference to specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood bythose skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may bemade therein without departing from the spirit and scope of theinvention as defined by the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. An electrode structure for electricallyaddressable displays, the structure comprising: a substrate defining atleast one via; a electrode disposed on a first side of said substrate; aconductor disposed on a second side of said substrate, such that saidelectrode and said conductor are in electrical communication by way ofsaid via; and at least one electrophoretic display element disposed onsaid substrate adjacent said electrode.
 2. The electrode structure ofclaim 1 wherein said substrate comprises a printed circuit board.
 3. Theelectrode structure of claim 1 wherein said electrode comprises anarbitrarily-shaped etched copper pad.
 4. The electrode structure ofclaim 1 wherein said substrate comprises a thin sheet made of adielectric material selected from the group of materials consisting ofpolyester, polyimide, and glass.
 5. The electrode structure of claim 1wherein said electrode comprises a printable material.
 6. The electrodestructure of claim 1 wherein said substrate comprises a printabledielectric coating.
 7. The electrode structure of claim 1 wherein saidconductor comprises a layer of printable conductive ink.
 8. Theelectrode structure of claim 1 wherein said substrate defines at leastone plated via.
 9. An electrode structure for electrically addressabledisplays, the structure comprising: a substrate having a first side anda second side, said substrate defining a via; an electrode disposed onsaid first side of said substrate; at least one electrophoretic displayelement disposed adjacent said first electrode; and a conductor disposedon said second side of said substrate, said conductor comprising aconnector, said conductor communicating electrically by way of said viawith said electrode; wherein said electrophoretic display element isaddressed by application of an electrical signal to said connector on aside other than said first side of said substrate.
 10. The electrodestructure of claim 9 wherein said substrate comprises a printed circuitboard.
 11. The electrode structure of claim 9 wherein said electrodecomprises an arbitrarily-shaped etched copper pad.
 12. The electrodestructure of claim 9 wherein said substrate comprises a thin sheet madeof a dielectric material selected from the group of materials consistingof polyester, polyimide, and glass.
 13. The electrode structure of claim9 wherein said substrate defines at least one plated via.
 14. Theelectrode structure of claim 9 wherein said electrode comprises aprintable material.
 15. The electrode structure of claim 9 wherein saidsubstrate comprises a printable dielectric coating.
 16. The electrodestructure of claim 9 wherein said conductor comprises a layer ofprintable conductive ink.
 17. An electrode structure for electricallyaddressable displays, the structure comprising: a substrate defining atleast one via; a first electrode disposed on a first side of saidsubstrate; and a conductor disposed on a second side of said substrate,such that said first electrode and said conductor are in electricalcommunication by way of said via; wherein said conductor is inelectrical communication with a network of conductors.
 18. The electrodestructure of claim 17 wherein said network of conductors is inelectrical communication with an edge connector.
 19. The electrodestructure of claim 17 further comprising at least one electrophoreticdisplay element disposed on said substrate adjacent said firstelectrode.
 20. The electrode structure of claim 17 wherein saidsubstrate defines at least one plated via.
 21. The electrode structureof claim 17 wherein said substrate comprises a printed circuit board.22. The electrode structure of claim 17 wherein said electrode comprisesan arbitrarily-shaped etched copper pad.
 23. The electrode structure ofclaim 17 wherein said electrode comprises a printable material.
 24. Theelectrode structure of claim 17 wherein said substrate comprises aprintable dielectric coating.
 25. The electrode structure of claim 17wherein said conductor comprises a layer of printable conductive ink.26. A process for manufacturing an electrode structure for electricallyaddressable displays, the process comprising: providing a flexibleinsulating substrate having surfaces on opposed sides thereof; producingwithin said substrate at least one aperture extending through thesubstrate between said opposed sides; disposing a conductor on one ofsaid surfaces of said substrate; and printing a layer of conductive inkon the on the other of said surfaces of said substrate, said conductiveink contacting said conductor through said at least one aperture definedin said substrate and forming a conductive via extending through saidsubstrate.
 27. The process of claim 26, further comprising laminating adisplay material to said electrode structure.
 28. The process of claim26 wherein providing an insulating substrate comprises provided aninsulating substrate comprising a selected one of plastic, polymerfilms, and glass.
 29. The process of claim 26 wherein producing withinsaid substrate at least one aperture comprises producing said apertureby a process selected from the group consisting of punching, drilling,abrading, and melting.